Health psychology is concerned with understanding how biology Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy, behavior, and social context influence health At the time of the creation of the World Health Organization , in 1948, health was defined as being "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" and illness Illness is a state of poor health. Illness is sometimes considered a synonym for disease. Others maintain that fine distinctions exist. Some have described illness as the subjective perception by a patient of an objectively defined disease. Health psychologists work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings, work on behaviour change in public health promotion, teach at universities, and conduct research Research can be defined as the search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish facts. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the. Although its early beginnings can be traced to the kindred field of clinical psychology Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical, four different divisions within health psychology and one allied field have developed over time. The four divisions include clinical health psychology, public health Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals." It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The psychology, community health psychology, and critical health psychology.[1] The allied field is occupational health psychology Occupational health psychology , a field that emerged out of two distinct applied disciplines within psychology, health psychology and industrial/organizational psychology, and occupational health, is concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who work. The. Organizations closely associated with the field of health psychology include Division 38 of the American Psychological Association and the Division of Health Psychology of the British Psychological Society.

Contents

Overview

Recent advances in psychological, medical, and physiological research have led to a new way of thinking about health and illness. This conceptualization, which has been labeled the biopsychosocial model The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach that posits that biological, psychological (which entails thoughts, emotions, and behaviors), and social factors, all play a significant role in human functioning in the context of disease or illness. Indeed, health is best understood in terms of a combination of biological, psychological,, views health and illness as the product of a combination of factors including biological characteristics (e.g., genetic predisposition), behavioral factors (e.g., lifestyle, stress, health beliefs), and social conditions (e.g., cultural influences, family relationships, social support Social support is the physical and emotional comfort given to us by our family, friends, co-workers and others. It is knowing that we are part of a community of people who love and care for us, and value and think well of us. Social support is a way of categorizing the rewards of communication in a particular circumstance. An important aspect of).

Psychologists who strive to understand how biological, behavioral, and social factors influence health and illness are called health psychologists. The term "health psychology" is often used synonymously with the terms "behavioral medicine Behavioral Medicine is an interdisciplinary field of medicine concerned with the development and integration of knowledge in the biological, behavioural, psychological, and social sciences that are relevant to health and illness. The term is often used interchangeably, and incorrectly, with health psychology, whereas the practice of behavioural" and "medical psychology Medical Psychology refers to a growing specialty area of clinical psychological practice in which clinical psychologists, who have undergone specialized education and training at the post-doctoral level, integrate somatic and psychotherapeutic modalities into the management of mental illness, including the prescription of medications in the care". Health psychologists work with many different health care professionals (e.g., physicians, dentists, nurses, physician's assistants, dietitians, social workers, pharmacists, physical and occupational therapists, and chaplains) to conduct research and provide clinical assessments and treatment services. Many health psychologists focus on prevention research and interventions designed to promote health and reduce the risk of disease. While more than half of health psychologists provide clinical services as part of their duties, many health psychologists function in non-clinical roles, primarily involving teaching and research. Leading journals include Health Psychology, the Journal of Health Psychology, the British Journal of Health Psychology, and Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being.

Health psychology is both a theoretical and applied field. Health psychologists employ diverse research methods. These methods include controlled randomized experiments Experiment is the step in the scientific method that arbitrates between competing models or hypotheses. Experimentation is also used to test existing theories or new hypotheses in order to support them or disprove them. An experiment or test can be carried out using the scientific method to answer a question or investigate a problem. First an, quasi-experiments, longitudinal studies A longitudinal study is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time — often many decades. It is a type of observational study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events throughout, time-series In statistics, signal processing, econometrics and mathematical finance, a time series is a sequence of data points, measured typically at successive times spaced at uniform time intervals. Examples of time series are the daily closing value of the Dow Jones index or the annual flow volume of the Nile River at Aswan. Time series analysis comprises designs, cross-sectional studies Cross-sectional studies form a class of research methods that involve observation of some subset of a population of items all at the same time, in which, groups can be compared at different ages with respect of independent variables, such as IQ and memory. The fundamental difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies is that cross-, and case-control Case-control is a type of epidemiological study design. Case-control studies are used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects who have that condition with patients who do not have the condition but are otherwise similar (the 'controls') studies as well as action research Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. Action research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional. Health psychologists study a broad range of variables including genotype, cardiovascular disease, smoking habits, religious beliefs, alcohol use, social support, living conditions, emotional state, social class, and much more. Some health psychologists treat individuals with sleep problems, headaches, alcohol problems, etc. Other health psychologists work to empower community members by helping community members gain control over their health and improve quality of life of entire communities.

Relationship to occupational health psychology

A separate but related discipline, occupational health psychology Occupational health psychology , a field that emerged out of two distinct applied disciplines within psychology, health psychology and industrial/organizational psychology, and occupational health, is concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who work. The (OHP) is a relatively new field that emerged out of the confluence of health psychology, industrial/organizational psychology Industrial and organizational psychology applies psychology to organizations and the workplace. Industrial-organizational psychologists contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance and well-being of its people. An I-O psychologist researches and identifies how behaviors and attitudes can be improved through hiring practices,, and occupational health Occupational health and safety is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goal of all occupational health and safety programs is to foster a safe work environment. As a secondary effect, it may also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers,.[2] The field is concerned with identifying psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that affect the health and well-being of people who work. OHP is also concerned with developing strategies to effect change at workplaces in order to improve the health of people who work. For more detail on OHP, see the section on occupational health psychology Occupational health psychology , a field that emerged out of two distinct applied disciplines within psychology, health psychology and industrial/organizational psychology, and occupational health, is concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who work. The.

Objectives of health psychology

Understanding behavioral and contextual factors

Health psychologists conduct research to identify behaviors and experiences that promote health, give rise to illness, and influence the effectiveness of health care. They also recommend ways to improve health care and health-care policy.[3] Health psychologists have worked on developing ways to reduce smoking[4] and improve daily nutrition[5] in order to promote health and prevent illness. They have also studied the association between illness and individual characteristics. For example, health psychology has found a relation between the personality characteristics thrill seeking, impulsiveness, hostility/anger, emotional instability, and depression, on one hand, and high-risk driving, on the other.[6]

Health psychology is also concerned with contextual factors, including economic, cultural, community, social, and lifestyle factors that influence health. The biopsychosocial model The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach that posits that biological, psychological (which entails thoughts, emotions, and behaviors), and social factors, all play a significant role in human functioning in the context of disease or illness. Indeed, health is best understood in terms of a combination of biological, psychological, can help in understanding the relation between contextual factors and biology in affecting health. Physical addiction plays an important role in smoking cessation. However, seductive advertising also contributes to psychological dependency on tobacco.[7] Research in occupational health psychology indicates that people in jobs that combine little decision latitude with a high psychological workload are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease Heart disease or cardiovascular diseases is the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels . While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system (as used in MeSH C14), it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis (arterial disease). These conditions have similar causes,.[8] Other OHP research reveals a relation between unemployment and elevations in blood pressure.[9] OHP research also documents a relation between social class and cardiovascular disease.[10]

Health psychologists also aim to change health behaviors for the dual purpose of helping people stay healthy and helping patients adhere to disease treatment regimens (also see Health Action Process Approach Models of health behavior change are designed to examine a set of psychological constructs that jointly aim at explaining what people motivates to change and how they take preventive action . The Health Action Process Approach is a psychological theory of health behavior change. It has been developed by Ralf Schwarzer, Professor of Psychology at). Health psychologists employ cognitive behavior therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy is a psychotherapeutic approach that aims to solve problems concerning dysfunctional emotions, behaviors and cognitions through a goal-oriented, systematic procedure. The title is used in diverse ways to designate behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and to refer to therapy based upon a combination of basic behavioral and applied behavior analysis Applied behavior analysis is the science of applying experimentally derived principles of behaviorism to modify behavior. ABA takes what we know about behavior and uses it to bring about changes of the behavior (frequency, topography, latency, speed, fluency). The behavior is analyzed utilizing behavior assessment to determine the functional (also see behavior modification Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to improve behavior, such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the reduction of maladaptive behavior through its "extinction", punishment and/or therapy) for that purpose.

Preventing illness

Health psychologists work towards promoting health through behavioral change, as mentioned above; however, they attempt to prevent illness in other ways as well. Campaigns informed by health psychology have targeted tobacco use. Those least able to afford tobacco products consume them most. Tobacco provides individuals with a way of controlling aversive emotional Emotion is a complex psychological and physiological phenomenon involving an individual's state of mind and its interaction between that individual and their environment. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience". Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, states accompanying daily experiences of stress that characterize the lives of deprived and vulnerable individuals.[11] Practitioners emphasize education and effective communication as a part of illness prevention because many people do not recognize, or minimize, the risk of illness present in their lives. Moreover, many individuals are often unable to apply their knowledge of health practices owing to everyday pressures and stresses. A common example of population-based attempts to motivate the smoking public to reduce its dependence on cigarettes is anti-smoking campaigns The first known advertisement in the USA was for the snuff and tobacco products of P. Lollard and Company and was placed in the New York daily paper in 1789. Local and regional newspapers were used because of the small-scale production and transportation of these goods. The first real brand name to become known on a bigger scale in the USA was &.[12] Health psychologists also aim at educating health professionals, including physicians and nurses, in communicating effectively with patients in ways that overcome barriers to understanding, remembering, and implementing effective strategies for reducing exposures to risk factors and making health-enhancing behavior changes.[13]

There is also evidence from occupational health psychology that stress-reduction interventions at the workplace can be effective. For example, Kompier and his colleagues [14] have shown that a number of interventions aimed at reducing stress in bus drivers has had beneficial effects for employees and bus companies.

The effects of disease

Health psychologists investigate how disease affects individuals' psychological well-being. An individual who becomes seriously ill or injured faces many different practical stressors. The stressors include problems meeting medical and other bills; problems obtaining proper care when home from the hospital; obstacles to caring for dependents; having one's sense of self-reliance compromised; gaining a new, unwanted identity as a sick person; and so on. These stressors can lead to depression, reduced self-esteem, etc.[15]

Health psychology also concerns itself with bettering the lives of individuals with terminal illness Terminal illness is a medical term popularized in the 20th century to describe an active and malignant disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated and that is reasonably expected to result in the death of the patient. This term is more commonly used for progressive diseases such as cancer or advanced heart disease than for trauma. In. When there is little hope of recovery, health psychologist therapists can improve the quality of life of the patient by helping the patient recover at least some of his or her psychological well-being.[16] Health psychologists are also concerned with identifying the best ways for providing therapeutic services for the bereaved.[17]

Critical analysis of health policy

Critical health psychologists explore how health policy can influence inequities, inequalities, and social injustice. These avenues of research expand the scope of health psychology beyond the level of individual health to an examination of the social and economic determinants of health both within and between regions and nations. The individualism of mainstream health psychology has been critiqued and deconstructed by critical health psychologists using newer qualitative methods and frameworks for investigating health experience and behavior.[18]

Applications of health psychology

Improving doctor-patient communication

Health psychologists attempt to aid the process of communication between physicians and patients during medical consultations. There are many problems in this process, with patients showing a considerable lack of understanding of many medical terms, particularly anatomical terms (e.g., intestines).[19] One main area of research on this topic involves "doctor-centered" or "patient-centered" consultations. Doctor-centered consultations are generally directive, with the patient answering questions and playing less of a role in decision-making. Although this style is preferred by elderly people and others, many people dislike the sense of hierarchy or ignorance that it inspires. They prefer patient-centered consultations, which focus on the patient's needs, involve the doctor listening to the patient completely before making a decision, and involving the patient in the process of choosing treatment and finding a diagnosis.[20]

Improving adherence to medical advice

Getting people to follow medical advice and adhere to their treatment regimens is a difficult task for health psychologists. People often forget to take their pills or are inhibited by the side effects of their medicines. Failing to take prescribed medication is costly and wastes millions of usable medicines that could otherwise help other people. Estimated adherence rates are difficult to measure (see below); there is, however, evidence that adherence could be improved by tailoring treatment programs to individuals' daily lives.[21]

Ways of measuring adherence

Health psychologists have identified a number of ways of measuring patients' adherence to medical regimens:

Managing pain

Health psychology attempts to find treatments to reduce and eliminate pain, as well as understand pain anomalies such as episodic analgesia An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as, causalgia, neuralgia Neuralgia is pain in one or more nerves that occurs without stimulation of pain receptor cells. Neuralgia pain is produced by a change in neurological structure or function rather than by the excitation of pain receptors that causes nociceptive pain. Neuralgia falls into two categories: central neuralgia and peripheral neuralgia. This unusual pain, and phantom limb pain A phantom limb is the sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached to the body and is moving appropriately with other body parts. Approximately 5 to 10% of individuals with an amputation experience phantom sensations in their amputated limb, and the majority of the sensations are painful. Phantom sensations may also occur after. Although the task of measuring and describing pain has been problematic, the development of the McGill Pain Questionnaire The McGill Pain Questionnaire, also known as McGill pain index, is a scale of rating pain developed at McGill University by Melzack and Torgerson in 1971[23] has helped make progress in this area. Treatments for pain involve patient-administered analgesia An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as, acupuncture Acupuncture is the procedure of inserting and manipulating needles into various points on the body to relieve pain or for therapeutic purposes. The earliest written record of acupuncture is the Chinese text Shiji with elaboration of its history in the second century BCE medical text Huangdi Neijing (黃帝內經, English: Yellow Emperor's Inner (found by Berman to be effective in reducing pain for osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis also known as degenerative arthritis or degenerative joint disease, is a group of mechanical abnormalities involving degradation of joints, including articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Symptoms may include joint pain, tenderness, stiffness, locking, and sometimes an effusion. A variety of causes—hereditary, developmental, of the knee[24]), biofeedback Biofeedback is the process of becoming aware of various physiological functions using instruments that provide information on the activity of those same systems, with a goal of being able to manipulate them at will. Processes that can be controlled include brainwaves, muscle tone, skin conductance, heart rate and pain perception. Biofeedback may, and cognitive behavior therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy is a psychotherapeutic approach that aims to solve problems concerning dysfunctional emotions, behaviors and cognitions through a goal-oriented, systematic procedure. The title is used in diverse ways to designate behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and to refer to therapy based upon a combination of basic behavioral.

Doctoral programs in health psychology

Universities in Australia

Universities in the United Kingdom

Universities in the United States

Canadian Universities

Doctoral programs in occupational health psychology

Go to the occupational health psychology Occupational health psychology , a field that emerged out of two distinct applied disciplines within psychology, health psychology and industrial/organizational psychology, and occupational health, is concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who work. The entry.

Bibliography

See also

References

  1. ^ Marks, D. F., Murray, M., Evans, B., Willig, C., Woodall, & C., Sykes, C. (2005). Health psychology: Theory, research and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  2. ^ Everly, G. S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In P. A. Keller & L. G. Ritt (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book, Vol. 5 (pp. 331-338). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange.
  3. ^ Sharman, S. J., Garry, M., Jacobsen, J. A., Loftus, E. F., & Ditto, P. H. (2008). False memories for end-of-life decisions. Health Psychology, 27, 291-296.
  4. ^ Dusseldorp, E., van Elderen, T., & Maes, S. (1999). A meta-analysis of psychoeducational programs for coronary heart disease patients. Health Psychology, 18, 506-519.
  5. ^ Resnicow, K., Jackson, A., Blissett, D., Wang, T., McCarty, F., Rahotep, S., & Periasamy, S. (2005). Results of the Healthy Body Healthy Spirit Trial. Health Psychology, 24, 339-348.
  6. ^ Beirness, D. J. (1993). Do we really drive as we live? The role of personality factors in road crashes. Alcohol, Drugs & Driving, 9, 129-143.
  7. ^ Pierce, J. P.. & Gilpin, E. A. (1995). A historical analysis of tobacco marketing and the uptake of smoking by youth in the United States: 1890-1977. Health Psychology, 14, 500-508.
  8. ^ Johnson, J. V., Stewart, W., Hall, E. M., Fredlund, P. & Theorell, T. (1996). Long-term psychosocial work environment and cardiovascular mortality among Swedish men. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 324-331
  9. ^ Kasl, S. V., & Cobb, S. (1970). Blood pressure changes in men undergoing job loss: A preliminary report. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32, 19-38.
  10. ^ Marmot, M. G., & Theorell, T. (1988). Social class and cardiovascular disease: The contribution of work. International Journal of Health Services, 18, 659-674.
  11. ^ Whalen, C. K, Jamner, L. D., Henker, B., & Delfino, R. J. (2001). Smoking and moods in adolescents with depressive and aggressive dispositions: Evidence from surveys and electronic diaries. Health Psychology, 20, 99-111.
  12. ^ Hershey, J. C., Niederdeppe, J., & Evans, W. D. (2005). The theory of 'truth': How counterindustry campaigns affect smoking behavior among teens. Health Psychology, 24, 22-31.
  13. ^ Ogden, J., Bavalia, K., Bull, M., Frankum, S., Goldie, C., Gosslau, M., et al. (2004) 'I want more time with my doctor': A quantitative study of time and the consultation. Family Practice, 21, 479-483.
  14. ^ Kompier, M. A. J., Aust, B., van den Berg, A.-M., & Siegrist, J. (2000). Stress prevention in bus drivers: Evaluation of 13 natural experiments. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 32-47.
  15. ^ Cassileth, B. R., Lusk, E. J., Strouse, T. B., Miller, D. S., Brown, L. L., Cross, P. A., & Tenaglia, A. N. (1984). Psychosocial status in chronic illness. New England Journal of Medicine, 311, 506-511.
  16. ^ Lander, D. A., & Graham-Pole, J. R. (2008). Love medicine for the dying and their caregivers: The body of evidence. Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 201-212.
  17. ^ O'Brien, J. M., Forrest, L. M., & Austin, A. E. (2002). Death of a partner: Perspectives of heterosexual and gay men. Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 317-328.
  18. ^ Marks, D. F., Murray, M., Evans, B., Willig, C., Woodall, & C., Sykes, C. (2005). Health psychology: Theory, research and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  19. ^ Boyle, C. M. (1970). Difference between patients' and doctors' interpretation of some common medical terms. British Medical Journal, 2, 286-289.
  20. ^ Dowsett, S. M., Saul, J. L., Butow, P. N., Dunn, S. M., Boyer, M. J., Findlow, R., & Dunsmore, J. (2000). Communication styles in the cancer consultation: Preferences for a patient-centred approach. Psycho-Oncology, 9, 147-156.
  21. ^ Clark, M., Hampson, S. E., Avery, L., & Simpson, R. (2004). Effects of a tailored lifestyle self-management intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes. British Journal Of Health Psychology, 9 (Pt 3), 365-79.
  22. ^ Banyard, P. (2002). Psychology in practice: Health. London, England: Hodder & Stoughton Educational.
  23. ^ Melzack, R. (1975). The McGill Pain Questionnaire: Major properties and scoring methods. Pain, 1, 277-299.
  24. ^ Berman, B., Singh B.B., Lao, L., Langenberg, P., Li, H., Hadhazy, V., Bareta, J., & Hochberg, M. (1999). A randomized trial of acupuncture as an adjunctive therapy in osteoarthritis of the knee. Rheumatology, 38, 346-354.

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Anyone know anything about Psychology & Holistic Health?
Q. I'm an undergrad psychology major and health & human wellness minor, and I'm planning to become a psychologist specializing in behavioral abnormalities, but I'm also really interested in holistic health. Are there many occupations or work environments that integrate the two things? Any useful information?
Asked by milleresque - Thu Jul 5 21:38:15 2007 - - 4 Answers - 1 Comments

A. Hi, My name is Regina and I also majored in psychology and then went on to receive my Holistic Health Counselor certification from the Institute of Integrative Nutrition. I also will be going back for my PhD in Clinical psychology, most likely in the fall of 2009 or 2010. I lead a yahoo group and study group through the Alumni Association of the Institute for Integrative nutrition, and I can tell you there are many of us interested in expanding upon this field and building it to become more mainstream with additional professional opportunities. Right now, however, the opportunities available are independently made. I am also founding a school that will begin taking students in the Fall of 2008. This school, The Institute for… [cont.]
Answered by Regina - Sun Jul 8 16:22:12 2007

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